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Advaita Vedanta (/ʌdˈvaɪtə vɛˈdɑːntə/; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त, IAST: Advaita Vedānta) is a Hindu-tradition of textual exegesis and philosophy and a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience.[note 1] In a narrow sense it refers to the scholarly tradition belonging to the orthodox Hindu Vedānta[note 2] tradition, with works written in Sanskrit, as exemplified by the Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya)[1] Adi Shankara[note 3] (9th cent. CE); in a broader sense it refers to a popular medieval and modern syncretic tradition, blending Vedānta with Yoga and other traditions and producing works in vernacular.[2]
The term Advaita (literally "non-secondness", but usually rendered as "nondualism",[3][4] and often equated with monism[note 4]) refers to vivartavada, the idea that "the world is merely an unreal manifestation (vivarta) of Brahman,"[5] as proposed by the 13th century scholar Prakasatman.[6] In this view, Brahman alone is ultimately real, while the transient phenomenal world is an illusory appearance (maya) of Brahman. In this view, jivatman, the experiencing self, is ultimately non-different ("na aparah") from Ātman-Brahman, the highest Self or Reality.[7][8][9][note 5] The jivatman or individual self is a mere reflection or limitation of singular Ātman in a multitude of apparent individual bodies.[10]
In the Advaita tradition, moksha (liberation from suffering and rebirth)[11][12] is attained through recognizing this illusoriness of the phenomenal world and disidentification from the body-mind complex and the notion of 'doership',[note 6] and acquiring vidyā (knowledge)[13] of one's true identity as Atman-Brahman,[14][15][16][17] self-luminous (svayam prakāśa)[note 7] awareness or Witness-consciousness.[18][note 8] Upanishadic statements such as tat tvam asi, "that['s how] you are," destroy the ignorance (avidyā) regarding one's true identity by revealing that (jiv)Ātman is non-different from immortal[note 9] Brahman.[note 5]
Advaita Vedānta adapted philosophical concepts from Buddhism, giving them a Vedantic basis and interpretation,[19] and was influenced by, and influenced, various traditions and texts of Indian philosophy.[20][21][22] The earliest Advaita writings are the Sannyasa Upanishads (first centuries CE), the Vākyapadīya, written by Bhartṛhari (second half 5th century,[23]) and the Māndūkya-kārikā written by Gauḍapāda (7th century).[24] While Adi Shankara is generally regarded as the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedānta tradition,[25][26][27][28] and his works have a prominent place in the Advaita tradition, some of the most prominent Advaita-propositions come from other Advaitins, and his early influence has been questioned.[29][30][note 3] Shankara's prominence started to take shape only centuries later in the 14th century, with the ascent of Sringeri matha and its jagadguru Vidyaranya (Madhava, 14th cent.) in the Vijayanagara Empire.[note 10]
Adi Shankara did not embrace Yoga,[31] and emphasized that, since Brahman is ever-present, Brahman-knowledge is immediate and requires no 'action' or 'doership', that is, striving (to attain) and effort.[32][33][34] The Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times accepted yogic samadhi as a means to knowledge, explicitly incorporating elements from the yogic tradition and texts like the Yoga Vasistha and the Bhagavata Purana,[35] culminating in Swami Vivekananda's full embrace and propagation of Yogic samadhi as an Advaita means of knowledge and liberation.[36][37] The Advaita tradition, as exemplified by Mandana Misra and others, also prescribes elaborate preparatory practice, including contemplation of the mahavakyas,[33][38][39][40][note 3] posing a paradox of two opposing approaches which is also recognized in other spiritual disciplines and traditions.[33][41][note 11]
In the 19th century, due to the influence of Vidyaranya's Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha,[42] the importance of Advaita Vedānta was overemphasized by Western scholarship,[43] and Advaita Vedānta came to be regarded as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, despite the numerical dominance of theistic Bhakti-oriented religiosity.[44][45][43][note 3] In modern times, Advaita views appear in various Neo-Vedānta movements.[46]
Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).
- ^ Suthren Hirst 2005, p. 1.
- ^ Allen 2017.
- ^ Deutsch 1988, p. 3.
- ^ Milne 1997.
- ^ Nicholson 2010, p. 27.
- ^ Mayeda 2006, pp. 25–27.
- ^ Menon 2012.
- ^ Deutsch 1973, p. 3, note 2; p.54.
- ^ Koller 2013, p. 100-101.
- ^ Indich 2000, p. 50.
- ^ Sharma 1995, pp. 8–14, 31–34, 44–45, 176–178.
- ^ Fost 1998, pp. 387–405.
- ^ Nakamura 2004, p. [page needed].
- ^ Comans 2000, p. 183.
- ^ Deutsch 1973, pp. 48–52.
- ^ Mayeda 2006, pp. 78–79.
- ^ Lipner 2000, p. 68.
- ^ Lipner 2000, p. 60.
- ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 13, 691.
- ^ Novetzke 2007, pp. 255–272.
- ^ Goodall 1996, p. xli.
- ^ Davis 2014, pp. 13, 167 with note 21.
- ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 426.
- ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 3.
- ^ Olivelle 1992, pp. x–xi, 8–10, 17–18.
- ^ Phillips 1998, p. 332, note 68.
- ^ Nakamura 2004, pp. 221, 680.
- ^ Madaio 2017.
- ^ Hacker 1995, p. 29–30.
- ^ King 2002, p. 128.
- ^ Fiordalis 2021, p. 24, note 12.
- ^ Dubois 2013, p. xvii.
- ^ a b c Barua 2015, p. 262.
- ^ Mayeda 1992, p. 182 (Up.I.18.103-104).
- ^ Madaio 2017, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Rambachan 1994.
- ^ Nicholson 2010, p. [page needed].
- ^ Deutsch 1988, pp. 104–105.
- ^ Comans 2000, pp. 125–142.
- ^ Mayeda 1992, p. xvii.
- ^ Fiordalis 2021.
- ^ Nicholson 2010, pp. 160.
- ^ a b Suthren Hirst 2005, p. 3.
- ^ Sharma 2006, p. 38–43, 68–75.
- ^ King 2013, p. 128–132.
- ^ King 2002, pp. 119–133.